Worked Example
Contents
Worked Example#
Data for several aircraft are presented in :cite:`Heffley:1972wb` and, honestly, this is a good exercise in showing you what a tremendous amount of being an engineer is - extracting data from old reports and doing stuff with it.
Data for Boeing 747#
Data are given on Page 217 of the aforementioned report for the B-747 in power approach configuration.
Configuration Information#
note that the trim theta is not actually given, but assumed to be zero
Nondimensional Stability Derivatives#
Longitudinal |
Lateral-Directional |
|---|---|
\(C_L=1.11\) |
\(C_{y_\beta}=-0.96\text{rad}^{-1}\) |
\(C_D=0.102\) |
\(C_{\ell_\beta}=-0.221\text{rad}^{-1}\) |
\(C_{L_\alpha}=5.70\text{rad}^{-1}\) |
\(C_{n_\beta}=0.150\text{rad}^{-1}\) |
\(C_{D_\alpha}=0.66\text{rad}^{-1}\) |
\(C_{\ell_\hat{p}}=-0.45\) |
\(C_{m_\alpha}=-1.26\text{rad}^{-1}\) |
\(C_{n_\hat{p}}=-0.121\) |
\(C_{L_\dot{\alpha}}=-6.7\text{rad}^{-1}\) |
\(C_{\ell_\hat{r}}=0.101\) |
\(C_{m_\dot{\alpha}}=-3.2\text{rad}^{-1}\) |
\(C_{n_\hat{r}}=-0.30\) |
\(C_{L_\hat{q}}=5.40\) |
\(C_{\ell_{\delta_a}}=0.0461\text{rad}^{-1}\) |
\(C_{m_\hat{q}}=-20.8\) |
\(C_{n_{\delta_a}}=0.0064\text{rad}^{-1}\) |
\(C_{L_\text{M}}=-0.81\) |
\(C_{y_{\delta_r}}=0.175\text{rad}^{-1}\) |
\(C_{m_\text{M}}=0.27\) |
\(C_{\ell_{\delta_r}}=0.007\text{rad}^{-1}\) |
\(C_{L_{\delta_e}}=0.338\text{rad}^{-1}\) |
\(C_{n_{\delta_r}}=-0.109\text{rad}^{-1}\) |
\(C_{m_{\delta_e}}=-1.34\text{rad}^{-1}\) |
Note that in :cite:`Heffley:1972wb`, the derivatives with respect to angular rates are erroneously given units of /rad, when they clearly are non-dimensional rates. The derivatives with respect to aerodynamic angles correctly are given units of /rad.
import numpy as np
from IPython.display import display, Math, Latex, Markdown
# Condition and geometry information
rho = 0.002377 # slugs/cubic feet
# rho = rho * 32.174 # to lb / cubic feet
rho = 0.0765 # lb/ft^3
U0 = 165 # Knots
U0 = U0 * 1.68781 # to feet/second
S = 5500 # square feet
b = 195.68 # feet
c = 27.31 # feet
theta_0 = 0
m = 564000 # lb
Iyy = 32.3e6 # slug-ft^2
Ixx = 14.3e6
Izz = 45.3e6
Ixz = -2.23e6
SIunits = False
if SIunits:
# Conversion factors
ft_to_metre = 0.3048
lb_to_kg = 0.453592
slug_to_kg = 14.5939
MOIconvert = slug_to_kg*ft_to_metre**2
# Constants
a = 340 # sonic velocity in m/s
g = 9.80665 # acceleration due to gravity
rho = 1.225 # density in kg/m^3
# Convert
U0 = U0 * ft_to_metre
S = S * ft_to_metre**2
b = b * ft_to_metre
c = c * ft_to_metre
m = m * lb_to_kg
Ixx = Ixx * MOIconvert
Iyy = Iyy * MOIconvert
Izz = Izz * MOIconvert
Ixz = Ixz * MOIconvert
else:
a = 1125.33 # sonic velocity in ft/s
g = 32.174
# Convert mass moments of inertia to consistent units --> INTO lb-ft^2 FROM slug-ft^2
Ixx = Ixx * g
Iyy = Iyy * g
Izz = Izz * g
Ixz = Ixz * g
# Store the derivatives in two dictionaries
B747_lon_ders = {'C_L': 1.11, 'C_D': 0.102, 'C_L_a' : 5.7, 'C_D_a' : 0.66, 'C_m_a' : -1.26,
'C_L_da' : -6.7, 'C_m_da' : -3.2, 'C_L_hq' : 5.4, 'C_m_hq' : -20.8, 'C_L_M' : -0.81,
'C_m_M' : 0.27, 'C_L_de' : 0.338, 'C_m_de' : -1.34}
B747_lat_ders = {'C_y_b' : -0.96, 'C_l_b' : -0.221, 'C_n_b' : 0.150, 'C_l_hp' : -0.45, 'C_n_hp' : -0.121,
'C_l_hr' : 0.101, 'C_n_hr': -0.30, 'C_l_da' : 0.0461, 'C_n_da' : 0.0064, 'C_y_dr' : 0.175,
'C_l_dr' : 0.007, 'C_n_dr' : -0.109}
# Put the dictionaries into the local namespace
# This might seem a bit convoluted but it enables us to store values of derivatives in the dicionary, above,
# and then put them all into the global namespace.
#
# It's fairly easy to get (key: value) pairs into a dictionary from a text file or xls so this will be handy
# later.
locals().update(B747_lon_ders)
# Note that without doing the dictionary --> local namespace, the we'd have to write:
# Xu = q * S / m / U0 * (2 * B747_lon_ders["C_D"] + M * B747_lon_ders["C_D_M"])
# Convert to dimensional form
q = 0.5 * rho * U0**2
M = U0 / a
Xu = -q * S / m / U0 * (2 * C_D) # No C_D_M term so assumed zero
Xw = q * S / m / U0 * (C_L - C_D_a)
Xq = 0 # No CDq term given in the table so assumed zero
Zu = -q * S / m / U0 * (2 * C_L + M * C_L_M)
Zw = -q * S / m / U0 * (C_D + C_L_a)
Zdw = q * S * c / m / 2 / U0**2 * C_L_da # This is a NEW term for us, but since it was given as C_L_da, must be included
Zq = -q * S * c / 2 / m / U0 * C_L_hq
Mu = q * S * c / Iyy / U0 * M * C_m_M
Mw = q * S * c / Iyy / U0 * C_m_a
Mdw = q * S * c**2 / 2 / Iyy / U0**2 * C_m_da
Mq = q * S * c**2 / 2 / Iyy / U0 * C_m_hq
Mq = q * S * c**2 / 2 / Iyy / U0 * C_m_hq
Zde = -q * S / m * C_L_de
Mde = q * S * c / Iyy * C_m_de
print(f"Xu = {Xu:1.4f}")
print(f"Xw = {Xw:1.4f}")
print(f"Zu = {Zu:1.4f}")
print(f"Zw = {Zw:1.4f}")
print(f"Zdw = {Zdw:1.4f}")
print(f"Zq = {Zq:1.4f}")
print(f"Mu = {Mu:1.4f}")
print(f"Mw = {Mw:1.4f}")
print(f"Mw = {Mw:1.4f}")
print(f"Mdw = {Mdw:1.4f}")
print(f"Mq = {Mq:1.4f}")
print(f"Zde = {Zde:1.4f}")
print(f"Mde = {Mde:1.4f}")
Xu = -0.0212
Xw = 0.0467
Zu = -0.2098
Zw = -0.6027
Zdw = -0.0341
Zq = -7.6596
Mu = 0.0001
Mw = -0.0019
Mw = -0.0019
Mdw = -0.0002
Mq = -0.4373
Zde = -9.7779
Mde = -0.5746
Some units have dimensions of \([\text{T}^{-1}]\) and hence have the same value in either unit system. Expand the below to see this. Other derivatives do not.
# Demonstration of the equality of some derivatives in both unit systems:
SIunits = {"Pressure": "Pa", "Mass": "kg", "Area" : "m^2", "Speed" : "m/s"}
USunits = {"Pressure": "lbs/ft^2", "Mass": "lbs", "Area" : "ft^2", "Speed" : "ft/s"}
# Conversion factors
ft_to_metre = 0.3048
lb_to_kg = 0.453592
slug_to_kg = 14.5939
for SIUNIT in [False, True]:
if SIUNIT:
UNITS = SIunits
else:
UNITS = USunits
# Convert to some temporary variables to not overwrite the original values
if SIUNIT:
u0 = U0 * ft_to_metre
s = S * ft_to_metre**2
c2 = c * ft_to_metre
mass = m * lb_to_kg
rho = 1.225
qinf = 0.5 * 1.2255 * u0**2
else:
qinf = q
u0 = U0
s = S
c2 = c
mass = m
if SIUNIT: print("Using SI Units:")
else: print("Using US Customary Units:")
print(f"Dynamic pressure, q = {qinf:1.4f} {UNITS['Pressure']}")
print(f"Wing area, S = {s:1.0f} {UNITS['Area']}")
print(f"Mass, m = {mass:1.0f} {UNITS['Mass']}")
print(f"Trim forward speed, U0 = {u0:1.1f} {UNITS['Speed']}")
testXu = -qinf * s / mass / u0 * (C_L * 2 + C_L_M * M)
testZq = -qinf * s * c2 / 2 / mass / u0 * C_L_hq
print(f"Gives a value for Xu = {testXu:1.4f}, and a value for Zq of {testZq:1.4f}\n")
Using US Customary Units:
Dynamic pressure, q = 2966.5143 lbs/ft^2
Wing area, S = 5500 ft^2
Mass, m = 564000 lbs
Trim forward speed, U0 = 278.5 ft/s
Gives a value for Xu = -0.2098, and a value for Zq of -7.6596
Using SI Units:
Dynamic pressure, q = 4414.9750 Pa
Wing area, S = 511 m^2
Mass, m = 255826 kg
Trim forward speed, U0 = 84.9 m/s
Gives a value for Xu = -0.2098, and a value for Zq of -2.3348
Now the system matrix can be constructed:
well…almost - you’ll see two things that need to be performed:
The starred terms need to be made from the products of the stability derivatives.
We have a \(Z_q\) term from conversion of the stability derivatives, but no corresponding place to put it.
The first problem is easy. From Equations (74)
Mustar = Mu + Mdw * Zu
Mwstar = Mw + Mdw * Zw
Mqstar = Mq + Mdw * Zq
Mthetastar = -Mdw * g * np.sin(theta_0)
Mdestar = Mde + Mdw * Zde
Now we’ve got all the terms, we don’t know where to put \(Z_q\). The answer should be obvious - it goes where the \(U_0\) term is - it doesn’t replace it, but is added to it. So:
import sympy as sp
Alon = np.matrix([[Xu, Xw, 0, -g*np.cos(theta_0)],
[Zu, Zw, U0 + Zq, -g*np.sin(theta_0)],
[Mustar, Mwstar, Mqstar, Mthetastar],
[0, 0, 1, 0]])
print("The system matrix for longitudinal motion is ")
display(Math('[A_{lon}] = ' + sp.latex(sp.Matrix(Alon).evalf(5))))
# Get the eigenvalues - this is my own checking I got the matrix correct. It'll make sense later.
eigs, _ = np.linalg.eig(Alon)
print("The eigenvalues are:", eigs)
print("The coefficients of the CE are:", np.poly(Alon))
The system matrix for longitudinal motion is
The eigenvalues are: [-0.52829455+0.69158467j -0.52829455-0.69158467j -0.00137077+0.14113918j
-0.00137077-0.14113918j]
The coefficients of the CE are: [1. 1.05933064 0.7802033 0.02312592 0.01508872]
The same can be performed for the lateral-directional matrix:
# Put the non-dimensional derivatives into the local namespace
locals().update(B747_lat_ders)
Yv = q * S / m / U0 * C_y_b
Yp = 0
Yr = 0
Lv = q * S * b / Ixx / U0 * C_l_b
Lp = q * S * b**2 / 2/ Ixx / U0 * C_l_hp
Lr = q * S * b**2 / 2/ Ixx / U0 * C_l_hr
Nv = q * S * b / Izz / U0 * C_n_b
Np = q * S * b**2 / 2 / Izz / U0 * C_n_hp
Nr = q * S * b**2 / 2 / Izz / U0 * C_n_hr
print(f"Yv = {Yv:1.4f}")
print(f"Yp = {Yp:1.4f}")
print(f"Yr = {Yr:1.4f}")
print(f"Lv = {Lv:1.4f}")
print(f"Lp = {Lp:1.4f}")
print(f"Lr = {Lr:1.4f}")
print(f"Nv = {Nv:1.4f}")
print(f"Np = {Np:1.4f}")
print(f"Nr = {Nr:1.4f}")
# Do the sadme with the control terms
# 'C_l_da' : 0.0461, 'C_n_da' : 0.0064, 'C_y_dr' : 0.175,
# 'C_l_dr' : 0.007, 'C_n_dr' : -0.109}
Yda = 0
Ydr = q * S / m * C_y_dr
Lda = q * S * b / Ixx * C_l_da
Ldr = q * S * b / Ixx * C_l_dr
Nda = q * S * b / Izz * C_n_da
Ndr = q * S * b / Izz * C_n_dr
#
Yv = -0.0997
Yp = 0.0000
Yr = 0.0000
Lv = -0.0055
Lp = -1.0971
Lr = 0.2462
Nv = 0.0012
Np = -0.0931
Nr = -0.2309
And put into the system matrix for lateral-directional motion
# Making the starred terms
Imess = Ixx * Izz / (Ixx * Izz - Ixz**2)
I2 = Ixz / Ixx
# Lstarred terms
Lvstar = Imess * (Lv + I2 * Nv)
Lpstar = Imess * (Lp + I2 * Np)
Lrstar = Imess * (Lr + I2 * Nr)
Ldrstar = Imess * (Ldr + I2 * Ndr)
Ldastar = Imess * (Lda + I2 * Nda)
# Nstarred terms
I2 = Ixz / Izz
Nvstar = Imess * (Nv + I2 * Lv)
Npstar = Imess * (Np + I2 * Lp)
Nrstar = Imess * (Nr + I2 * Lr)
Ndrstar = Imess * (Ndr + I2 * Ldr)
Ndastar = Imess * (Nda + I2 * Lda)
Alat = np.matrix([[Yv, 0, -U0, g*np.cos(theta_0), 0],
[Lvstar, Lpstar, Lrstar, 0, 0],
[Nvstar, Npstar, Nrstar, 0, 0],
[0, 1, np.tan(theta_0), 0, 0],
[0, 0, 1/np.cos(theta_0), 0, 0]])
print("The system matrix for lateral-directional motion is ")
display(Math('[A_{lat}] = ' + sp.latex(sp.Matrix(Alat).evalf(5))))
print("The eigenvalues are:", np.linalg.eig(Alat)[0])
print("The coefficients of the CE are:", np.poly(Alat))
The system matrix for lateral-directional motion is
The eigenvalues are: [ 0. +0.j -1.2285872 +0.j -0.08023692+0.74204291j
-0.08023692-0.74204291j -0.04646794+0.j ]
The coefficients of the CE are: [1. 1.43552897 0.81876855 0.71945085 0.03180283 0. ]
np.pi*2/.7420
8.467904726657125
Transient Longitudinal Response#
Note that we’ve not made either of the control matrices yet - and there’s a good reason for that. If we consider the linearised model of the aircraft created, the stability of the aircraft (i.e., its response to a perturbation) will be governed by the system matrix.
In the first instance, it is desired to understand the stick fixed stability and understand what will happen to the aircraft if no inputs are made.
Consider what the two matrices developed actually show us; if the aircraft is disturbed from a given condition, then if the disturbance is a symmetric state variable (\(u, w, q, \theta\)), then the output is a time rate of change of all other symmetric variables.
The control matrices tell us how the aircraft responds due to control input. Therefore, if we’re interested in aircraft response in the absense of pilot or control-system input, then we’re only interested in the A matrices themselves. The A matrices give the open loop response of the aircraft.
Since these are ODEs, we could write a means to time-march through the solution - but there are some handy inbuilt tools in Python to look at the responses of state-space systems to different inputs.
You will probably need to install these to work on your system - look here.
But if we create the \(B\) matrix, it can be used to excite the aircraft with unity impulse input. For this reason, it makes sense to make the two control matrices with derivatives that have been scaled by a factor of \(\frac{\pi}{180}\) to allow a unity degree control input.
import control
import control.matlab
# We will make a B matrix to enable us to use the control system toolbox by _exciting the aircraft_ through
# Elevator input. Turn from Zde in 1/radians to 1/degree to put a useful input in.
Blon = np.matrix([[0], [np.radians(Zde)], [np.radians(Mdestar)], [0]])
# Turn the matrices into a state space object
LonSS = control.StateSpace(Alon, Blon, np.eye(Alon.shape[0]), np.zeros(Blon.shape))
# Look at the first 100 seconds response to a unit impulse in the only
Time, [u, w, q, theta] = control.impulse_response(LonSS, T=np.linspace(0, 200, 10000))
# u, w, q, theta = u[0], w[0], q[0], theta[0]
# Convert q and theta
q = np.degrees(q)
theta = np.degrees(theta)
from plotly.subplots import make_subplots
import plotly.graph_objects as go
fig = make_subplots(rows=2, cols=2, subplot_titles=("Forward Speed", "Heave Velocity", "Pitch Rate", "Pitch Attitude"))
fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = u, showlegend=False), row=1, col=1)
fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = w, showlegend=False), row=1, col=2)
fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = q, showlegend=False), row=2, col=1)
fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = theta, showlegend=False), row=2, col=2)
# Make a label based upon the units
if SIunits:
speedlabel = "m/s"
else:
speedlabel = "ft/s"
fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=1, col=1)
fig.update_yaxes(title_text=f"u / ({speedlabel})", row=1, col=1)
fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=1, col=2)
fig.update_yaxes(title_text=f"w / ({speedlabel})", row=1, col=2)
fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=2, col=1)
fig.update_yaxes(title_text="q / (deg/s)", row=2, col=1)
fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=2, col=2)
fig.update_yaxes(title_text="θ / deg", row=2, col=2)